different kinds of life. It is done by directly observing different life forms and arriving at conclusions about them. For example, suppose a biologist wants to know whether frogs have lungs. How would she answer this question? By observation. She dissects a frog, notes that it has lungs and concludes that frogs have lungs. In other words, direct observation of reality is the normal means by which biology and most sciences operate. A second-order discipline is a field that studies the methods and